Random telegraph signal in CMOS single photon avalanche diodes

Abstract

This dissertation is focused on single photon devices that have triggered a real revolution in the world of imaging, the Single Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs). These devices acquired immediately a great interest in the field of single photon imaging, since they showed great performances in several fields, such as quantum mechanics, optical fibres, fluorescent decays and luminescence in physics, chemistry, biology, medical imaging, etc. These applications require single photon detectors able to assure high performances in photon counting, such as high photon detection efficiency, high speed and extremely low noise detection. The interest on SPAD became wider as they have been implemented in Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology, reaching the integration of quenching and post-processing circuits on the pixel itself. The high timing and spatial resolution, the low power performance, the easy integration of circuits made CMOS SPADs the best choice in the field of single photon detectors. The ability to detect individual photons with very high timing resolution, at the order of few tens of picoseconds, and with an internal gain of 106 allowed to reduce the complexity in amplification circuit. However, SPAD performance is also influenced by Dark Count Rate (DCR), i.e. no-photon induced count rate, and by Random Telegraph Signal (RTS) occurrence, i.e. DCR discrete fluctuations. DCRs are mainly due to defects introduced in the semiconductor lattice and in the oxide during the fabrication process. In addition, radiation environment can induce new defects in the silicon structure, knows as radiation-induced defects. These defects or cluster of defects create new energy levels in the bandgap and cause the generation of carriers in depletion regions through thermal processes (Shockley Read-Hall, SRH, processes) and tunneling processes. This results in the increase of the mean dark current and in RTS. An increased occurrence of RTS effects degrades the performances of the devices, since the randomisation of this signal makes impossible to calibrate correctly the device. Therefore, it is important to investigate RTS behaviour and recognize the defects involved in this mechanism. The identification of defects responsible for RTS and the understanding of its evolution could be very useful to limit the effects on the devices operating in radiation environment. The thesis is structured in four chapters. The first chapter introduces the semiconductor-based photodetectors, the evolution of these devices until to CMOS Single-Photon Counting Detectors (SPADs). SPADs are described in detail, by explaining the working principle and the associated electronic circuits. SPAD performances are also discussed, taking into consideration the crosstalk and afterpulse. The second chapter explains the mechanisms responsible for DCR increase and RTS occurrence, focusing on generated electron-hole pairs due to thermal trap-assisted transition or to trap-assisted tunnelling (TAT) and band-to-band tunnelling (BTBT) at high electric field. RTS phenomenon is described and several theoretical models to explain its origin are presented in this chapter. The third chapter describes SPADs device investigated in the experimental analysis, focusing on two different layouts implemented in the test-chip: P+/Nwell and Pwell/Niso layout. The experimental setup and SPAD characterization before irradiation is reported. The fourth chapter describes the proton irradiation test and presents the experimental RTS data and the evolution in frequency and time domain. The chapter reports also the experimental results obtained by RTS investigation on two different SPAD layouts. The results allowed to hypothesize an explanation involved in RTS phenomenon.